The Origin of Philosophy
Chronology of the First Philosophers, from Thales to Aristotle
The origin of philosophy can be traced back to ancient Greece in the 6th century BCE, more specifically the city of Miletus, and the early Greek thinkers who sought to explore fundamental questions about the universe and human existence through observation and reason.
Before the emergence of philosophy, explanations of natural phenomena and the world’s origins were often rooted in mythological narratives, mythos. Philosophers introduced a shift from mythological explanations to rational discourse and argumentation, logos.
The word “philosophy” itself, in fact, actually means “love of wisdom”.
Table of Contents
Historical Context
The emergence of philosophy in ancient Greece was the result of a cultural shift away from mythological explanations and towards rational argumentation. This shift was facilitated by the growth of city-states, the values of democracy, the exposure to neighboring cultures, and the integration of mathematical principles into philosophical thought.
The rise of Greek city-states (polis) contributed to a more urbanized and intellectually vibrant society. The political structure of Greek city-states fostered greater freedom of thought and expression, compared to autocratic regimes. These city-states, and Athenian democracy in particular, encouraged open discourse and public debate, providing a fertile ground for intellectual exchange.
Greece’s proximity to neighboring cultures, such as Egypt and Mesopotamia, allowed for the exchange of ideas and knowledge as they engaged in trade and sometimes colonization, which exposed the ancient Greeks to a variety of foreign cultures. This cultural exchange introduced the them to different belief systems and intellectual traditions, broadening the horizons of Greek thinkers. The influence of Egyptian and Mesopotamian thought can be observed in the early Greek philosophers, especially in their cosmological ideas.
Last but not least, mathematics, as it affirms an inherent order in existence as well as universal principles that govern reality, serves as a model for a systematic approach to knowledge in order to arrive at objective, timeless and universally valid truths.
The Pre-Socratic philosophers were pioneers in attempting to understand the nature of the physical world and the fundamental principles governing it. While their theories varied significantly, they collectively marked a shift away from mythological explanations and towards observation and reason as a means of understanding the world.
Their contributions laid the groundwork for the philosophical traditions that followed, including the ethical, metaphysical and scientific inquiries of Socrates, Plato and Aristotle respectively.
The Milesian School
The Milesian School, also known as the Milesian philosophers, was a group of early Greek thinkers who hailed from the ancient city of Miletus in Asia Minor, modern-day Turkey.
Thales of Miletus, Anaximander and Heraclitus are three prominent thinkers associated with the Milesian School, who are often regarded as the earliest philosophers in the Western tradition.
The Milesian philosophers played a crucial role in the transition from mythos – mythological explanations – to logos – rational and systematic inquiry – in ancient Greece.
Thales of Miletus (c. 624-546 BCE)
Thales is often considered the first philosopher in the Western tradition, known for his efforts to explain natural phenomena through rational and systematic inquiry.
Thales proposed that water, hydor, was the fundamental substance, or arche, from which everything originated and to which everything ultimately returned. He believed that water could transform into different states, such as solid (ice) and gas (vapor), explaining the observable diversity in the material world.
Thales, a renowned mathematician, is also known for his contributions to geometry, and is credited with the theorem that an angle inscribed in a semicircle is a right angle.
Anaximander (c. 610-546 BCE)
Anaximander, a student of Thales, further developed the Milesian School’s notion a fundamental substance and the uniform nature of the existence.
Anaximander introduced the concept of the apeiron, an infinite and indefinite principle that was neither water nor any specific element. He argued that the apeiron was the both source of all things and the underlying substance of the cosmos.
Anaximander further speculated on the origin and structure of the universe, and proposed that celestial bodies were formed through the separation of opposites within the boundless apeiron.
The apeiron represented an unspecified, abstract notion to understand the fundamental nature of reality, significant in so far as it affirms uniformity in nature. This notion of order and a rational principle governing existence, nomos, would influence later Pre-Socratic philosophers and cosmologists.
Heraclitus (c. 535-475 BCE)
Heraclitus hailed from the city of Ephesus, located in the region of Ionia, and while he did not have a direct connection to the Milesian School, he is often grouped with them due to his similar contributions to early Greek philosophy.
Heraclitus is renowned for his profound and often cryptic philosophical writings, which emphasize the nature of change and the importance of opposites in understanding the cosmos’ dynamic nature. He believed that contradictory forces (e.g., war and peace, harmony and strife) were interconnected and essential for understanding the universe.
Heraclitus proposed that fire, pyr, was the fundamental substance of existence, symbolizing the dynamic nature of reality. The famous saying, “everything flows”, panta rhei, is in fact attributed to him.
Heraclitus, in short, is known for the doctrine of flux, which posits that everything in the natural world is in a constant state of change.
The Pre-Socratic Philosophers
The period prior to Socrates is a fascinating era in the history of philosophy, known as Pre-Socratic philosophy. During this time, which roughly spans the 6th and 5th centuries BCE, Greek thinkers embarked on the earliest recorded philosophical inquiries. Their work laid the foundation for the development of philosophical thought as we know it.
Pre-Socratic philosophers, which includes the Miletian School, initiated a shift from supernatural explanations of natural phenomena to naturalistic explanations. Instead of attributing observable phenomena to gods and divine intervention, they sought natural causes and rational principles to explain the world as it is.
This paradigm laid the groundwork for rationalism, empiricism and, subsequently, the scientific method itself.
Parmenides (c. 515-450 BCE)
Parmenides was a philosopher from the city of Elea in southern Italy, who is best known for his metaphysical views on the nature of reality and existence.
Parmenides argued for a radical form of metaphysical monism, positing that there is only one unchanging, eternal and indivisible reality, which he called “Being” or “the One”. He thus denied the notion of change and multiplicity. According to Parmenides, change and diversity are illusions, and the true nature of reality is unchanging and permanent.
Parmenides’ metaphysical ideas had a profound impact on the development of Western philosophy, as his views on the nature of reality and the non-existence of change influenced subsequent philosophers, including Plato and Aristotle.
Pythagoras (c. 570-495 BCE)
Pythagoras was a philosopher, mathematician and mystic who founded the Pythagorean School, a philosophical and religious community that taught mathematics and numerology.
Pythagoras, although best known for the Pythagorean theorem, which relates the lengths of the sides of a right triangle, believed in the mystical significance of numbers. The Pythagorean School believed that numbers had cosmic and metaphysical properties, and could be used to understand the universe’s underlying order.
Plato’s secret doctrine, if its existence is to be believed, would be heavily influenced by the Pythagorean School. Regardless, The Timaeus, a work whose attribution to Plato is accepted among scholars, presents a detailed account of the creation of the cosmos, explaining that it was crafted by a divine craftsman, the Demiurge, who used mathematics and geometric forms as the blueprint for the physical world.
According to Plato, and in line with Pythagorean thought, the universe was created in accordance with mathematical ratios and proportions, and these mathematical principles underlie the order and structure of the cosmos.
Empedocles (c. 490-430 BCE)
Empedocles was a philosopher from the ancient Greek city of Akragas in Sicily, known for his influential ideas in both philosophy and natural science.
Empedocles proposed a fundamental theory of the natural world that revolved around the concept of four basic elements: earth, water, air and fire. He believed that these four elements made up all matter, and they combined and separated under the influence of two opposing forces: Love, attraction, and Strife, repulsion. According to Empedocles, the interactions of these four elements and the opposing forces of attraction and repulsion explained the diversity and transformations of the physical world.
Empedocles had a cosmological vision that included cycles of creation and destruction driven by Love and Strife. He believed that the universe underwent periods of unity and separation, with Love bringing elements together to form a harmonious whole, and Strife causing them to separate.
Empedocles’ theory of the four elements and his ideas about the forces of Love and Strife contributed significantly to the development of ancient Greek cosmology and physics, and would remain influential, through the works of Aristotle, throughout the medieval period.
Empedocles was not only a philosopher but also a poet who composed philosophical poems, such as Peri Physeos (On Nature), in which he presented his ideas about the natural world and the cosmos in verse.
Early Philosophical Themes
Pre-Socratic philosophers were primarily concerned with understanding the nature – physis – of the physical world, and the fundamental principles underlying it – arche.
The common theme among the Pre-Socratic philosophers was the nature of reality itself, as they sought to answer questions like: “What is the fundamental substance or principle that underlies all things?”
Many pre-Socratic philosophers proposed different archai (from the singular arche) as the fundamental substance or element from which all things originated. Thales, for instance, proposed that water was the primary substance, suggesting that everything in the natural world could ultimately be reduced to water. Anaximander, in turn, introduced the concept of the apeiron, an indefinite and boundless principle, as the fundamental substance. And Heraclitus argued that change was fundamental to reality, proposing that fire was the primary substance and that the unity of opposites played a central role in understanding reality.
Parmenides’ philosophy introduced the idea of sameness and unity as a fundamental concept, contrasting with the diversity and change emphasized by other Pre-Socratic thinkers like Heraclitus and Empedocles. In his famous poem, Parmenides challenged conventional notions of change and multiplicity, and argued that reality was a single, unchanging and indivisible entity.
The Pythagoreans contributed to the early development of mathematical philosophy, as Pythagoras believed that numbers had a fundamental role in understanding the cosmos. This emphasis on the mathematical underpinnings of reality was a unique aspect of early Greek philosophy.
Overall, Pre-Socratic philosophers engaged in metaphysical speculation by exploring the fundamental nature of reality beyond the physical world, seeking an ultimate principle to explain the diversity of existence. While they did not provide definitive answers to these questions, their inquiries laid the groundwork for future philosophers, including Socrates, Plato and Aristotle.
The Athenian School
The Athenian School, as it has come to be known, represents a foundational period in the history of philosophy, centered in ancient Athens during the 5th and 4th centuries BCE. It was a time of flourishing intellectual activity, marked by the contributions of the three most prominent and famous philosophers from antiquity: Socrates, Plato and Aristotle.
Socrates (c. 470-399 BCE)
Socrates is often regarded as the father of Western philosophy, and is best known for the Socratic method of inquiry, a dialectic approach based on asking questions to expose contradictions, demonstrate ignorance, and encourage a more profound understanding.
Socrates focused his philosophical inquiries primarily on moral and ethical questions. He believed that true knowledge led to virtue and that self-examination was essential for personal and ethical growth, as well as personal fulfillment.
Socrates’ emphasis on the pursuit of wisdom through questioning and critical self-examination, encapsulated in the famous maxim inscribed at the Delphic Oracle of Apollo, “Know Thyself”, had a profound influence on subsequent philosophical traditions.
Plato (c. 428/427-348/347 BCE)
Plato was a student of Socrates and arguably the most influential philosophers in history, the first to pen his thoughts and leave behind an extensive body of work that survived the ages. Plato also founded the Academy in Athens, one of the earliest known institutions of higher learning, which proved instrumental in the development of philosophy as a distinct discipline.
Plato introduced the theory of Forms (or Ideas), positing that abstract, non-material forms exist as perfect and unchanging representations of the true nature of reality, believing that the physical world was a mere reflection of these perfect Forms.
Plato’s philosophical ideas are primarily presented in the form of dialogues, with Socrates as a central character. His writings cover a wide range of topics, including ethics, politics, metaphysics and epistemology, and his writings continue to be studied for their exploration of fundamental philosophical questions, demonstrating the enduring relevance of his ideas.
Aristotle (384-322 BCE)
Aristotle was a student of Plato and later became the tutor of Alexander the Great. He founded his own school, the Lyceum, and made significant contributions to numerous fields, including philosophy and science.
Aristotle emphasized empirical observation and the study of nature, as he sought to understand the world through systematic observation and classification. He critiqued Plato’s theory of Forms and proposed his own views on substance and change.
Aristotle’s works on metaphysics explored the nature of being, causality and the structure of reality. His numerous works laid the foundation for fields such as physics, biology and logic.
In line with Socratic and Platonic philosophy, Aristotle’s ethical philosophy revolved around the concept of virtue ethics and eudaimonia, emphasizing the cultivation of virtuous character traits as the path to living a good and fulfilling life.
Philosophy as a Distinct Disciple
The Athenian School of philosophy, led by Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, represents a pivotal period in the history of Western thought. Their collective contributions span a wide range of philosophical topics, from ethics and metaphysics to epistemology and politics, shaping the trajectory of philosophy and intellectual inquiry for centuries to come.
Socrates, who lived in Athens in the 5th century BCE, played a pivotal role in the development of philosophy as a distinct discipline. He shifted the focus of philosophical inquiry from natural phenomena to questions about morality and human conduct. Socrates’ emphasis on critical thinking and self-examination laid the foundation for epistemological and ethical philosophy.
Plato and Aristotle, two of the most influential philosophers in ancient Greece, formalized the study of philosophy. Plato established the Academy in Athens while Aristotle founded the Lyceum, centers for education and intellectual exchange, where great minds congregated. These institutions played a crucial role in the organization and dissemination of philosophical knowledge.
Throughout these developments in ancient Greek culture, the scope of what constitutes wisdom and the areas of inquiry within philosophy continued to evolve, encompassing both the natural world and fundamental questions about human existence.
Final Thoughts
The Milesian School laid the groundwork for the emergence of philosophy as a distinct discipline, as it marked a significant turning point in the history of Western thought by emphasizing the importance of reason in understanding the natural world.
Before the emergence of philosophy, explanations of the world’s origins and natural phenomena were often rooted in mythological narratives, or mythos. Philosophers introduced a shift from mythological explanations to rational discourse and argumentation, or logos.
In the early stages of Greek philosophy, often referred to as Pre-Socratic philosophy, the focus was primarily on natural philosophy, or the study of the natural world. Thinkers like Thales, Anaximander and Heraclitus sought to understand the fundamental substance or principles that underlay the physical universe. Philosophy at this time was closely tied to questions about the origin and nature of the universe.
Socrates, who is often considered the father of moral or ethical philosophy, shifted the focus of philosophy from questions about the natural world to questions about human behavior and ethics, emphasizing the importance of reason and wisdom in living a virtuous and fulfilling life. Plato further expanded the scope of philosophy, exploring metaphysical questions, such as the nature of reality, and issues related to justice and politics in his famous dialogues. Aristotle contributed significantly not only to Greek philosophy but also to the development of science, it as it was understood and practiced thereafter. His philosophical treatises covered a vast array of subjects, including metaphysics, ethics, politics and natural sciences. Aristotle’s emphasis on empirical observation and systematic inquiry laid the foundation for many later developments in both philosophy and science.
The origins of philosophy as a distinct discipline can be traced to ancient Greece, where the first great thinkers in recorded history engaged in rational inquiry to explore questions about the natural world, knowledge, ethics and the human condition. Over time, philosophy evolved into a distinct and diverse discipline, encompassing various areas of study and schools of thought.
The development of written texts and philosophical writings allowed for the preservation and dissemination of philosophical ideas. Plato’s dialogues and Aristotle’s treatises are among the first to present a comprehensive intellectual paradigm that endured throughout history, and are thus foundational texts in the history of philosophy.