The Essential Glossary for Ancient Greek Philosophy

Must Know Terminology to Comprehend Ancient Greek Cultural Values, Beliefs and Philosophy

Understanding Ancient Greek philosophy, whilst being solely informed by translated texts and derivatives of translated texts, poses a near insurmountable challenge that is rooted in our ignorance of ancient Greek values, customs, beliefs and, more importantly, the language itself.

It does not help matters that, especially in the age of information technology, translations of the original works are often presented as is, as if it were a mere matter of fact, rather than what it is: an interpretation. Words often being ambiguous, and sometimes non-existent in another language, translations necessarily entail an interpretation and, ideally, a clarification to accompany it.

There are tenets of Ancient Greek philosophy – such as philosophy itself, reason and virtue – whose meaning and significance would elude even the most learned scholar, if he did not possess knowledge of the ancient Greek language and a basic understanding of their cultural values and beliefs.

Philosophy (φιλοσοφία): The Love of Wisdom

The term philosophy comes from two Greek words: philo (φίλο), meaning love or fondness, and sophia (σοφία), meaning knowledge or wisdom. Philosophy, thus, etymologically and literally means “fondness for knowledge” or “love of wisdom”.

The credit for coining the term philosophy is often attributed to the ancient Greek mathematician, philosopher and mystic Pythagoras (c. 570–495 BCE), or his followers. The Pythagorean School was known for their intellectual pursuits, encompassing mathematics, geometry, ethics and the study of the natural world. It is said that Pythagoras used the term “philosopher” to describe himself and his followers, reflecting their commitment to the pursuit of knowledge, understanding and wisdom as a way of life.

Pythagoreanism, as a philosophical and religious movement, affirmed the importance of intellectual and moral development as essential aspects of human life, in the belief that the pursuit of knowledge and wisdom led to a harmonious existence, both individually and collectively.

While Pythagoras may have popularized the term, the pursuit of knowledge and wisdom was a central intellectual endeavor in Ancient Greece. The Pre-Socratic philosophers, including figures like Thales, Anaximander, Heraclitus and Pythagoras, are considered the pioneers of the Western philosophical tradition. They sought to understand the underlying principle, arche, of the natural world and the cosmos. Socrates is known for his method of dialectical questioning, which aimed at fostering critical thinking and self-examination, and his approach contributed to the development of ethics and moral philosophy. Plato and Aristotle, in turn, made significant contributions to various areas of study. Plato’s dialogues explore topics such as justice, the nature of reality and the ideal state, while Aristotle’s works span natural philosophy, metaphysics, logic, ethics and more.

Over time, the meaning of philosophy evolved as the practice delved into various branches, each with its own focus and areas of inquiry. These branches include metaphysics (the study of the fundamental nature of reality), ethics (the study of moral principles and values), epistemology (the study of knowledge), logic (the study of valid reasoning), and more.

Philosophy originates from the Ancient Greek words philo, meaning love, and sophia, meaning wisdom, and signifies the fondness for the attainment of knowledge and the cultivation of wisdom.

The Ancient Greek philosophers, being the perennial lovers of wisdom, through reason and reflection explored fundamental questions about human existence and the universe itself.

Arche (ἀρχή): The Perennial Source

Arche (ἀρχή) is derived from the Greek verb archō (ἄρχω), which has a dual meaning that encompasses both to begin and to govern. The term arche, derived from archo, inherits this dual meaning. This duality is essential to understanding its philosophical significance.

In the context of philosophy, particularly in the Pre-Socratic tradition, the verb archō was extended to give rise to the noun arche. This metaphysical extension shifted the focus from the act of initiation, to the fundamental substance from which everything originates and, in line with the dual meaning of archo, the principle that governs existence.

In Ancient Greek philosophy, arche represents the fundamental principle, or substance, that is both the origin of all things and the governing principle of the universe.

The concept of arche was central to the philosophical inquiries of the Pre-Socratic philosophers, who sought to understand the fundamental nature of reality. These early philosophers, such as Thales, Anaximander and Heraclitus, proposed different archai as the ultimate principle, or elements, that compose the cosmos. Thales proposed that water was the arche, believing that it was the fundamental substance that forms the physical world. Anaximander suggested an infinite and undetermined substance as the arche, which he termed the apeiron. Heraclitus envisioned fire as the arche and emphasized the ever-changing nature of reality in his philosophy. The concept of the arche laid the groundwork for the development of metaphysical philosophy, particularly in the works of Plato and Aristotle. Plato explored the idea of transcendent Forms or Ideas as the true archai of reality, while Aristotle discussed the notion of substance as the arche.

The search for the arche represented an early form of metaphysical investigation, as the Ancient Greek philosophers set themselves to the task of understanding the ultimate nature of reality and the fundamental principle that governs existence.

Knowing and understanding the “arche” was seen as a way to grasp the fundamental structure of the universe.

Logos (λόγος): A Rational Order

The word logos (λόγος) is derived from the Proto-Indo-European root “*leg-” or “*log-“, which is related to words, speech and communication. This Proto-Indo-Europen root is the common ancestor of several words in Indo-European languages that pertain to speaking and expressing thoughts.

In Ancient Greece, logos evolved from this root to have multiple related meanings, including:

• Logos can simply mean a word, speech or utterance. In this sense, it represents the basic unit of language and communication.
• Logos also came to signify reason, rationality and the capacity for logical though, representing the intellectual aspects of human cognition.
• In a philosophical context, logos takes on profound metaphysical and epistemological significance. It represents the underlying rational and organizing principle of the universe, the source of order amidst chaos, and the basis for human understanding.
• Logos is also connected to language and rhetoric. In rhetoric, it is one of the modes of persuasion, emphasizing logical reasoning and evidence as a means of convincing an audience.

The word logos underwent a semantic evolution over time, starting from its basic meaning of spoken words and gradually expanding to encompass notions of reason, order and divine intelligence.

In philosophical contexts, logos encapsulates profound and abstract significance, associated with reason, rationality and the intellect. This usage is prominent in the works of Heraclitus, Parmenides and the Stoic philosophers. Heraclitus is famous for his concept of the logos. He proposed that the logos is the underlying principle that governs the universe, representing the rational order and unity amidst the ever-changing flux of the world. According to Heraclitus, understanding the logos leads to wisdom.

Logos can be seen as a symbol of order and harmony, in contrast to chaos, and also represents the human capacity for thought, logic and understanding.

The concept of logos was further developed by later philosophers, including the Stoics. They emphasized the role of reason and rationality in understanding the world and living virtuously, and the notion of logos became central to their ethical and metaphysical philosophy.

In sum, logos is a versatile term that encompasses meanings related to language, reason, rationality and the underlying order of the universe.

Mythos (μῦθος), the Oral Tradition

The term mythos (μῦθος) in Ancient Greek derives from the Indo-European root “*mu-” or “*men-” which is related to the act of speaking, telling or expressing through words. The root “*mu-” or “*men-” is the common origin of words in several Indo-European languages related to communication, speech and storytelling; it refers to the act of conveying ideas, stories or narratives through spoken words.

In Ancient Greek, mythos developed from this root to signify a story, tale or narrative that is recounted orally. Greek myths often had religious and cultural significance, and the oral transmission served as a means of passing down knowledge, beliefs and cultural values from one generation to the next. Myths provided explanations for the natural world, the origins of the cosmos and the behaviors and attributes of deities.

Mythos in Ancient Greek culture are stories that convey not only religious, cultural and moral values, but also explanations about the natural world. While Greek myths initially existed in oral form, they were eventually recorded in written texts, such as the works of Homer and Hesiod, allowing these stories to be preserved and studied for generations to come.

Greek philosophers, including Plato and Aristotle, often explored the symbolic aspects of myths and used them to convey philosophical ideas. Despite their cultural specificity, these myths explore universal themes such as love, betrayal, heroism, fate and even the purpose of human existence.

Throughout antiquity, the oral tradition of mythological narratives encapsulated, preserved and transmitted significant cultural, religious, moral and philosophical knowledge.

Physis (φύσις): Natural Law

The term physis is derived from the Ancient Greek verb “phuo” (φύω), which means to grow or to emerge. “Phuo” (φύω) encompasses natural growth, emergence or development, and is often related to plants sprouting or coming into being. The noun physis is formed from the verb “phuo” by adding the suffix “-sis.” This suffix is commonly used in Greek to create nouns denoting actions, processes or states.

The etymology of physis indicates that it is to be understood as the action, process or state of emergence and natural growth, reflecting the term’s association with the natural world and its role in discussions about the nature of reality, the dynamic aspects of the material world, and the principles that govern existence.

In Ancient Greek culture, physis referred to the natural world, encompassing everything from the physical universe to living organisms, representing the totality of the cosmos and the principles that govern it. It played a central role in early Greek philosophy, particularly in the Pre-Socratic tradition, where it prompted inquiries into the nature of reality, change, stability and the relationship between physis (nature) and nomos (convention).

Physis played a pivotal role in the philosophy of the Pre-Socratic philosophers, as they sought to understand the underlying principle (archai) of the natural world, often contrasting physis with nomos (convention or law). Heraclitus, a prominent Pre-Socratic philosopher, emphasized the concept of physis in his doctrine of change and flux. He argued that everything in the natural world is in a constant state of change and that physis embodies this dynamic and ever-changing aspect of reality. Parmenides, another Pre-Socratic philosopher, took a different approach. He argued that true reality is unchanging and eternal, which he saw as contradictory to the notion of physis. This contrast between change and stability became a central philosophical theme.

Aristotle, the famed Greek philosopher, developed a comprehensive system of natural philosophy known as “Physics”. In his work, he explored the principles of physis, including the study of motion, causality and the natural world’s organization. Aristotle’s concept of physis, often translated as nature, encompassed a wide range of topics that we would now categorize as distinct disciplines, including biology, physics and metaphysics. Aristotle is often referred to as a natural philosopher and his approach to physis was holistic, regarding the study of nature as an interconnected whole.

In Ancient Greek culture and philosophy physis refers to the totality of the natural world and the inherent principles that govern existence, comprising aspects of what we would now call biology, chemistry and physics. Physis may be best understood, simply put, as natural law.

Nomos (νόμος): Human Law

The word nomos is derived from the Proto-Indo-European root “*nem-” or “*nom-,” which is related to the concept of division, distribution and allocation of resources, goods and responsibilities within a community or society. Over time, this root evolved in various Indo-European languages to convey the idea of custom, rule or law.

In Ancient Greek, nomos took on the meaning of custom or law, and signified the rules and regulations that governed various aspects of society, including cultural, moral and legal norms. Over time, “nomos” became closely associated with legal systems and codes of conduct within Greek city-states, and encompassed not only written laws but also unwritten traditions and customs that guided behavior. In short, “nomos” represented the structured and ordered conventions of human society.

In philosophy, particularly in the works of Heraclitus and Protagoras, nomos contrasts with physis. Physis refers to the natural order, while nomos represents human-made conventions and laws. This distinction explores the tension between the natural world and human constructed rules and societal conventions. The philosophical distinction between nomos and physis was a central theme in the works of several ancient Greek thinkers.

The “nomos vs. physis” debate has significant and enduring ethical implications, as it questions whether ethical principles are grounded in a universal, objective order (physis) or are contingent upon human conventions and cultural norms (nomos). This dilemma has had a lasting influence on ethical philosophy, particularly in discussions about moral objectivity and relativism.

In ancient Greek philosophy, nomos represents human-made customs, conventions and laws; it is often contrasted with physis, which represents the natural order.

The etymology of nomos underscores its fundamental role in Greek culture, where it encompassed not only laws but also the broader social, ethical and cultural norms that shaped the life of the community.

Arete (ἀρετή): The Realization of Excellence

The word arete (ἀρετή) literally means “that which is good”; it signified rank, nobility, moral virtue and excellence. Etymologically speaking, it is a word of uncertain origin.

Arete is a fundamental concept in Ancient Greek culture, particularly in Greek philosophy and ethics. It is a term that doesn’t have a direct one-word translation in English but is often understood as virtue, excellence or moral goodness. However, these translations only capture part of its meaning.

Arete encompasses a broader and more complex notion. It represents the idea of striving for one’s highest potential and the fulfillment of one’s function or purpose. In this regard, it applies to various aspects of life, including intellectual excellence, physical prowess, moral virtues and even excellence in craftsmanship or art.

In the ancient Greek worldview, excellence and virtue were highly valued, and arete encompassed a wide range of qualities and attributes that were considered virtuous or excellent. The Greeks believed that cultivating virtues – courage, wisdom, justice, and temperance – would lead to a harmonious and fulfilling life.

Philosophers like Plato and Aristotle explored the concept of Arete in their works. Plato believed that Arete was tied to the idea of justice and harmony within the individual and the state, while Aristotelian virtue ethics affirmed the importance of developing moral and intellectual virtues to achieve eudaimonia, translated as human flourishing or happiness. Aristotle believed that everything in the natural world possesses an essence, its fundamental characteristic and defining quality, and the realization of its essence is the highest ideal to which it may aspire.

The concept of arete was deeply ingrained in Ancient Greek culture and philosophy, signifying the paramount importance of living up to one’s full potential and realizing one’s inherent purpose – in essence, arete represents the pursuit and attainment of excellence.

Final Thoughts

Philosophy, as a method for understanding ourselves and the world around us, originated in Ancient Greece. The western philosophical tradition has it roots in the pioneering work of the first great thinkers who sought to prioritize observation and reason based discourse over mythological narratives.

Plato, the famed student of Socrates, is responsible for the first holistic and comprehensive intellectual paradigm based on reason and logic in recorded history. Aristotle, the famed student of Plato, would go on to systematize the acquisition of knowledge and the methodology of valid inference in such a compelling manner that it informed and guided academia for well over a millennia.

Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, however, are but a few names among the dozens of influential thinkers who, each in their own way, contributed to the emergence of philosophy and the evolution of western thought.

The significance of Ancient Greek philosophy goes well beyond philosophy as we understand it today, for it effectively formed the basis for knowledge, knowledge acquisition and knowledge validation throughout history. It is not without reason that it continues to be studied to this day, being an integral part of human history; if one values knowledge, that is.